Project Management Individual Coursework Assignment Essay

Project Management Individual Coursework Assignment - Essay Example In addition, the field also provides comprehensive guideline to project managers to complete project with successfully meeting challenges (Larson and Gray, 2011). Underlying report is the critical assessment of the factor the surrounding the project management of the new Super Prison Project as announced by Ministry of Justice in England. The report assesses various aspects of the project in detail. BACKGROUND Ministry of Justice in England has announced to close down seven jails in full along with two partial closures for greater valued use of tax-payers money. The plan aims to close the old uneconomic capacity of prison for approximate saving of ?63m per year in running costs. Further, the cost of keeping the prison in new project will be half to the cost being currently incurred. The proposed Super Prison project plan is aimed to provide 2000 places in contrast to the closure of 26000 places in the prisons to be closed. It would affect the 1776 prison staff with certain percentage to be re-deployed while also appreciating voluntary elimination of redundancies. The proposed project, being 25% bigger than the UK’s currently largest prison is facing concerns. ... Howard League for Penal Reform discredited the ideas as no prospects of new building’s contribution to control crime was evident and hence considers it a mere waste of tax payers money. Mr. Grayling has also proposed the planned four new mini-prisons naming house blocks. In addition, to the proposed project that is to be followed by closure of certain jails has not achieved the favorable consensus and many others have given discrediting remarks to the idea. KEY STAGES OF THE PROJECT The project undergoes various phases from initiation to completion. The project lifecycle consists of following phases as conceptual phase, planning phase, defining and designing phase; implementation phase and conversion phase (Cleland and Gareis, 2006). MoJ has just conceptualized the plan. Time and cost factor increases as the project reaches to defining and designing. Implementation phase requires maximum time and cost as the project moves on. Therefore, while establishing Super Prison building the project will requires maximum time and efforts. This phase also increases challenges such as in case the relative of prisoners may raise voice against the shifting etc. Therefore, while implementing plan, the project along side has to undergo the phase of meeting challenges. On completion, the project is evaluated. The evaluation of the Super Prison Project will be based on the cost saving from shifting the prison in new building. In addition, it will also be evaluated if being completed within planned resources. WORK BREAK DOWN STRUCTURE The work breakdown chart outlines the plan for the project stepwise from initiation to completion. WBS benefits project to identify every detail that needs attention and hence ensures that project does not skip

News Release Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

News Release - Assignment Example According to Ross, the report showed a disturbing behavior of some members of the team. Nevertheless, he is pleased with the affirmation of Coach Joe Philbin’s commitment to sportsmanlike conduct among team members. â€Å"We are committed to a positive workplace environment where everyone treats each other with respect. We have reviewed our Code of Conduct and workplace policies and are making enhancements to the areas of sports psychology, human resources and player engagement functions which serve as safe outlets for any player or employee.† The issue of bullying as alleged by Jonathan Martin against offensive line members Richie Incognito, John Jerry and Mike Pouncey brings to light this matter. The organization does not take these accusations lightly and is committed to the formation of a Code of Conduct that will enable the organization to move forward and foster a harmonious relationship that will hopefully apply not only to the Dolphins but to sports as a whole. Ross reiterates, â€Å"I have made it clear to everyone within our organization that this situation must never happen again. We are committed to address this issue forcefully and to take a leadership role in establishing a standard that will be a benchmark in all of sports.† Miami Dolphins will host a press conference at 2 p.m. on June 6, 2014, at the Sun Life Stadium where Mr. Stephen Ross will be available together with Coach Joe Philbin for questions. Requests for media credentials to attend the news conference should be directed to Your Name at

Affirmative action at the work place Essay Example for Free

Affirmative action at the work place Essay Affirmative action is a concept used as a justice seeking tool comprising of policies to address intimidating aspects of a non dominant or minor group. Such groups include women, minority men and physically disabled people. Affirmative action increases these groups access to facilities such as employment and education. The motivation for affirmative action comes in times when a perception or actual negative aspect towards a certain group is experienced, but illegal according to legislative bodies. It is also applied in learning and service delivery institutions such as police forces, hospitals or universities to motivate them to act more responsibly to the people they represent. According to Bulman (2006), affirmative action at the work place is a concept that should be applied in all departments. This is because many working places are characterized by cultural, social and political diversity (p.45). This is to say that people come from different communities, races, religions, political backgrounds, gender, national origins, and age, physical and mental health capabilities. This calls for affirmative action to fight for the weak mass within the working place, as these upgrades the workforce diversity. Racial and gender based discrimination in a working environment comes in the areas of granting jobs, in promotional programs and admission to institutions causing unfairness and inhumanity aspects in the working environment. Affirmative action in an employment environment illustrates both the prescriptive indicators and double edge quality in working together. Strong form of affirmative action should be the abolishment of race and sex consciousness in the times of hiring, promotion and in layoff preferences. Â  The need and essentiality of constructing integrated society in the workplace is to develop a forward looking and pragmatic staff. The diversity bestowed on company employees signifies diversity in its location and therefore employers need a law to govern them for maintenance of the diversity. The ideology of preferences among equally qualified applicants has a negative perception at this time when diversity is so widely acknowledged. The support extended to workplace diversity leaves open both questions of means and ends. Enhancement of affirmative action can literally be done through encouraging application from disadvantaged groups during recruitment programs. As a result, some preferences may be extended to the groups perceived to be underrepresented. Affirmative action should be mostly adopted by government organizations for they are highly affected by discrimination along ethnicity and gender lines (Loury, 2003, p.13). Adoption of this will make state parties to diminish or eliminate situations which help in perpetuating discrimination. For the government to assist implementation of this, each company should be given some legal minimum requirements to comply, in the area of representation by the disadvantaged groups in their various departments of work. The matters of concern that should be addressed are equity ownership, representation within management, employee level up to board of directors level, procurement of businesses and other several social investment programs. Affirmative action prevents discrimination in lines with hiring bias, promotion, job assignment, compensation, retaliation and all sorts of harassments. Work place is a unique and important site for development of corporative and social ties of different groups. It has of late become the centre for corporation, socialization, and solidarity, which emerge as primary features of human psychology. This has also been tightened by affirmative action move, which has promoted equity in opportunity and demographic heterogeneity and the imposition of rudimentary virtues of freedom of association and communication (Mellot, 2006, p.7). The conventionality in the diversity argument hardly spins the value of demographic based on heterogeneity and is mostly made to ensure work place integration. The process of affirmative action thus starts with pooling different people of different identities and backgrounds together. Different experiences and attitudes thought to correspond to demographic variations in the work place are eroded easily, thus emphasizing on common ground and connectedness across the difference lines. In places where many people live and work together elements like friction in decision making, turnover and dissatisfaction are eminent. The challenge is devising the ways and means to ameliorate the emerging tensions. In the employment context, workers should be protected equally and completely rule out employment abuses such as unequal treatment of treating employees, job applicants and former employees due to differences in a group membership. Employers have to take care of pregnant mothers or related medical conditions. It is against affirmative action move to discriminate workers in lines of discharging, hiring, compensating, terms provision, conditions and employment related privileges (Mellot, 2006, p. 9). From societal point of it, the employees form a part of society. They have to take that as their own community, live in it and a system of governance should exist within. Application of many cooperative interracial interactions in the workplace ensures the living together and governance. Because of the diversity brought in by the globalization process, interactions that lead to reasonable and controllable frictions should be allowed to pave way to brainstorming and creativity. From the societal calculus, the side of the employer is less considered.

Housebreaking Crimes And Offences Of Burglary Criminology Essay

Housebreaking Crimes And Offences Of Burglary Criminology Essay Burglary known also as housebreaking is a crime, the quintessence of which is an entry into premises for the intentions of committing an offence. Typically, that offence will be a form of theft, but many jurisdictions stipulate others, which fall same case within the realm of burglary. Burglary can be explained using two theories including Social ecology: Crime and place theory and Strain and sub cultural theories. The two theories are significant in explaining Burglary as a crime but espouse the ideas differently. This paper critically compares and contrasts the two theories as well as how differently they explain Burglary. It details many concepts surrounding the explanations of burglary with differentiation of particulars of each theory. This leads us to the next part on literature review of some of the works written on this topic. Crime and place theory explains Burglary in the context of the location of the crime itself. Theories of crime can be sub divided into the theories seeking to explain the criminal offenders development, and the theories seeking to explain the criminal events development (Brantingham Brantingham, 1995). Theories on Burglary have been overriding in criminology development. Most research on crime as well as crime prevention focus mainly on why certain types of persons commit crime and exactly what can be, done about it. It is only in recent times that serious attention has been paid to explain crimes such as Burglary rather than the peoples criminality (Anderson, 1998). Concern with the place is much central to this effective approach (Capone Nichols 1996). While theories of criminality and crime such as Burglary are often seen to compete in explaining the Burglary problem, it practical to begin with the concept that offender as well as event explanations complements each other consid erably than competitors (Carter Hill, 1996). Many other works explain the main reason why there is need to use theories in crime is to understand the reason why the perpetrators of crime do it and where and how they are likely to do it. Offenders may be motivated highly, but unless they facilitate the creation of a crime event, there is surely nothing to explain (Cromwell Olson, 1991). In the same way, given a criminal act such as Burglary, the etiology of the event should in some manner, have an explanation of the respective offender (Brantingham Brantingham, 1995). Theories of Offender should tell us eventually how people develop to be criminal offenders, and the situation where the same criminals desist from offending. Theories such as these may insinuate crime prevention strategies focused on the individuals likely to become solemn violent criminals, or high-rate criminals committing less grave crimes (Roncek, 1991). However, to date many theories about criminality development do not provide a strong basis for making pred ictions such as these, and there is miniature consensus as to what a theory in the future would be like in explaining criminal acts (Capone Nichols 1996). Other literature makes it possible to link crime such as burglary with place and situations. A place is a small area, typically a street corner, building, address, or street segment. A focus on places contrasts with a concentrating on neighborhoods. Neighborhood theories regularly highlight the offenders development, while place level explanations give emphasis to crime events. Three perspectives imply the relevance of places for understanding criminal acts including routine activity theory, rational choice and crime pattern theory (Brantingham Brantingham, 1995). However, these perspectives are equally supportive; crime pattern theory and routine activity theory provide varying explanations for crime happening at different places. Five research areas help us understand the relevance of places in explaining crime (Capone Nichols 1996). Crime intensity about scrupulous facilities, for example, bars, the high crime concentration at some addresses and crime absence at others; the prec autionary effects of a variety of place features; the offenders mobility; and studies of the way offenders select their targets. The following examples provide just a glimpse of the mounting recognition of the place role in crime as well as crime control. Lawsuits hinging on the claimants ability to show that parking lots and buildings are gratuitously dangerous abound in the civil courts (White, 1990). Local newspapers contain community protests in opposition to drinking establishments, 24-hour stores or sex shops, seen as magnets for criminals. Community advocates propose taking legal action against place owners that disrupt neighborhoods (Anderson, 1998). To add more on places and situations, more literature prevails in this context. Police programs focusing on where burglary happens rather than the people committing them are developing in  towns; at the same time that a number of academic studies reveal that is concentrated at particular places even in neighborhoods that have high burglary rates (Capone Nichols 1996). Concern with the affiliation between burglary and the place is not new. As early as the nineteenth century, scholars analyzed the distribution burglary across regions with differing social characteristics and ecological (Brantingham Brantingham, 1995). In the U.S., pioneering advocates of sociology examined carefully the burglary location in the city of Chicago (White, 1990). They argued that distinctiveness of the urban environment is relevant to explain the emergence of burglary in specific communities (White, 1990). On the other hand, these early attempts of understanding the correlation between burglary and plac e took a macro approach considering aggregates of places such as states, cities, regions, communities and neighborhoods instead of a micro approach examining the places themselves. There have been new developments in the crime and place theory explaining further on the same topic. Recent interest crime and place focus on micro-level relationships. The studies begin with distinctive efforts of identifying the correlation between Places of Crime in Crime Theory particular aspects of urban design (Barr Pease, 1990) or the architecture; and burglary as a crime, but broadened to account for a much larger set of physical space characteristics and criminal opportunity. These studies drew variations between the site in question and the geographical area (for example community, neighborhood, city or police beat), which surrounds it. Places in this micro perspective are particular locations within the broad social environment. They can be small as the area next to a teller machine or large as a strip shopping center, or a building. Often places thought as having particular types of businesses (Biron Ladouceur, 1991). Conversely, Sherman et al. (1989) proposes that this new focus on discrete areas is fundamental enough to be appropriately, seen as a separate new area of study in the area of burglary as a crime. He conducts a survey of some crime practices among the juveniles who ever participated in crime. Recent trends in the understanding of the relevance of opportunity in crime prevention (White, 1990) and the influence of crime displacement (Anderson, 1998) suggest additionally that place should be an essential component in crime prevention and crime theory. Additionally, three recent perspectives including routine activity theory, rational choice, and crime pattern theory have influenced the understanding of the relevance of place in preventing burglary as a crime (Biron Ladouceur, 1991). A rational choice perspective explains the basic rationale for define place as necessary, since it espouses that offenders should select targets as well as define means of achieving their goals in a way that can be explained (Anderson, 1998). Some scholars claim that this perspective in theory is to some degree not testable, as it is virtually always possible to interpret individual behavior as rational from the burglars perspective (Anderson, 1998). Others have shown that it is possible to test several forms of rational choice (Anderson, 1998). Nonetheless, a rational choice perspective can be of use in developing testable propositions, which describe burglary crime events and burglars behavior. This is particularly true if a rational choice perspect ive is of use in combinations with routine activity theory (Barr Pease, 1990). Routine activity theory explains the occurrence of burglary crime events as the confluence of numerous circumstances (Biron Ladouceur, 1991). First, there should be a motivated offender. On the other hand, the development of motivated burglars is the goal of the theories. Second, there should be an enviable target. Third, the specific objective and the burglar must be in the same place and time (Brantingham Brantingham, 1995). Finally, three types of controllers including guardians, intimate handlers, and place managers should be ineffective or absent. Intimate handlers are specifically people who hold a direct, personal influence relatively over a burglar (for example parents, coaches, friends, teachers, or employers). In the presence of these people, potential burglars do not commit burglary crimes. Many adults are away from such intimate handlers for the largest part of the day and many burglars, both adult and juvenile, have few or relatively no intimate handlers (Anderson, 1998). To understand these concepts, it is good to dig deeper into the theories explanations. People taking care of the places are, named place managers. Place managers, (for instance apartment managers, janitors, and others) regulate individual behavior at the locations they have control over. For a burglary crime to occur, these people must be ineffective, absent or negligent (Anderson, 1998). Crime and place pattern theory is noteworthy particularly in developing, an understanding of burglary as a crime and place because it combines routine activity theory and rational choice to help explain the burglary distribution across places (White, 1990). The distribution of burglars, handlers, guardians, targets, and managers over the place and time describe burglary crime patterns (Brantingham Brantingham, 1995). Changes in society are the main reason for the increased the number of targets while separating them relatively from the people who could make an effort of protecting them (guardians, handlers and managers). Reasonably rational burglars, while they engage in their routine activities, will eventually note places without managers and guardians as well as where their handlers have a less likelihood of being there (Biron Ladouceur, 1991). Crime and place theory looks into the interactions of burglars with their social and physical environments influencing burglars choices of targets. Conversely, according to crime and place theory, how respective targets come to know of burglars influences the distribution of burglary crime events over time and space. This occurs because burglars engage in custom activities. Just like other non-burglars, burglars move among the spheres of work, shopping, school and recreation. As they engage in their normal and routine activities, they also become aware of crime opportunities (Anderson, 1998). Therefore, burglary criminal opportunities not near the areas burglars routinely move through have a less likelihood to come to their attention (Capone Nichols 1996). A given burglar will be aware of only possible targets available. Criminal opportunities present at places coming to the attention of burglars have an increased risk of literally becoming targets (Barr Pease, 1990). While a few burglars may aggressively look for uncharted areas, most conduct their searches precisely within the areas they are familiar in the event of their no n-criminal activities. In learning more on this, it is good to note that, the concept of place is essential to burglary theories. Not only are places rationally required (a burglar should be in a place when a burglary crime is committed), their individual characteristics influence the possibility of a burglary crime. Place characteristics discussed in the crime and place theory include the effectiveness and presence of managers and the being there of capable guardians. Crime and place theory links places with enviable targets and the context found by focusing on the way places come to the attention of burglars. Conversely, sub cultural theory explains burglary crime differently, arguing that certain subcultures or groups in the society have attitudes and values that are conducive to burglary crime, as well as violence (Biron Ladouceur, 1991). The primary focus of this theory is, however, on juvenile delinquency because the supporting theorists believe that if this offending pattern can be, controlled and understood it will stop or minimize the possibilities of the transition from teenage offender to actually, experienced habitual criminal (Barr Pease, 1990). This applies most in the context of burglary where it starts mostly at the teenage age and develops into an experienced burglar and a thief. Some theories are functionalist and assume that criminal activity such as burglary generates motivation from economic needs, while for other theorists; they posit a social class deviance rationale. On the other hand, culture represents the customs values and norms, which guide behavior and act as a general framework of judging behavior by the majority. It transmits to individuals socially than biologically. The burglary crime in this case focuses on misplaced norms and values of particular individuals where they engage in the act through social influence. Unlike the crime and place theory, this is the case of social transmissions and not individual decisions (Barr Pease, 1990). A subculture is an idiosyncratic culture within a given culture, so its values and norms differ from the broad culture but do not represent necessarily a culture deemed as deviant. This would represent a burglars social culture within any given culture (Anderson, 1998). A subculture distinguishes itself from a counterculture operating in direct opposition to the broad culture meaning that, this is why burglars practice the same. Social Disorganization Theory and Cultural Transmission Theory argue that, in the poorest city zones, certain behavioral forms become the cultural norm, which transmits from a generation to the other, as part of the socialization process (White, 1990). This is somehow similar with the place theory that posits a similar argument. Successful criminals are relatively the role models of the young, who demonstrate both the possibilities of success through burglary crime, and its normality. There is also more literature detailing on Sub cultural Theory. Sub cultural Theory just like the crime and place theory proposes that the urban setting makes it difficult for people living there to find ways of creating a sound community because of the prevailing anonymity and alienation (Grandjean, 1990). The cultural structure experiences the majority norms forcing individuals to form communities quite different and new from the culture. This explains why burglars have a tendency to live a different life from the normal person in the same broad culture. More lately, Fischer (1995) through a case study conducted among few cities on the subject of crime projected that the size, heterogeneity and population of cities strengthens groups, encouraging the subcultures formation, which are more diverse in nature when comparing to the general culture (Biron Ladouceur, 1991). Fischer refers a subculture as, a set of people sharing a defining trait, relate with one another, are the institut ions members associated with their central trait, adhering to a set of values, sharing a set of tools and taking part in an ordinary way of life (Anderson, 1998). Conversely, it is possible to argue that for burglary, the practice is not exceedingly common in less densely populated areas as well as in less diverse environments. Generally, the creation of subcultures such as burglar groups would be almost impossible in such areas (Barr Pease, 1990). Nevertheless, ethnic minorities, the artistic avant-garde, professionals, displaced agricultural families, among others come to live in cities typifying their lifestyles to that of cities, which is why burglary is increasing in the urban areas even with the same people coming from less practice areas. Albert K. Cohen (1955) looked at the general delinquency subculture, with a focus on gang delinquency among the youth working class in slum areas using a case study, which developed an idiosyncratic culture as a direct response to their lack of social and economic opportunity within the broad U.S. society. The features of the subculture were anti-utilitarian with many cases having no profit motive in burglary or other crimes. Their main intention was fostering peer bonding by sharing the breaking laws experience (Boggs, 1965). They also featured collective reaction formation with the gang inverting the values of the broad culture, deliberately practicing the American Dream mirror image. The other significant feature was malice with many acts of vandalism as well as property damage motivated by contempt, spite and personal intentions. Among other features was short-termism and group autonomy (White, 1990). This explains vividly the principal features of burglary groups as well as how they feature within the broad culture. Justifying the same, Cohen (1958) in his survey on juveniles and crime argued this in terms extremely similar to Strain Theory. He said that general education taught the young to strive hard for social status through achievements academically but, when most of failed, this encouraged status frustration, inverting middle-class norms and values and striking back at the system, which initially let them down. In this context, burglary is similarly explained the same way (Barr Pease, 1990). Out of desperation and following a feeling of regret, the population within the broad culture turns to practices such as burglary to earn a living and better their lives. Middle class ideals stress success, independence, academic achievement, control of aggression, delayed gratification, and respect for property. Lower class guardians and parents encourage distinctive values and norms in their children. In lower class families, planning and ambition must give way to particularly pressing issues (Boggs , 1965). Conversely, Miller (1958, 1959) did agree with Cohen after he did a case study on juvenile delinquency among the youth aged 15-20 years that there was a subculture of delinquency, but argued that this arose from the lower class life because of the dominant strains they experience. In this context, he was of the opinion that burglars are mostly among the low life individuals in an attempt to make a living (Buerger, 1992). There was a clear differentiation in values between the social classes. The middle class is social goal oriented and achievement, and the lower class guardians foremost concern is that children stay out of trouble, because this was prominent among them (Maher Sherman, 1992). In his argument, he explains that Boys are expected to be particularly tough as well as street-smart which is why they are the majority in the burglary acts than girls. This is a significant reason why boys join gangs more than the girls do because they have an incentive of joining a gang such a s a burglary gang (Barr Pease, 1990). In making it clear, Barr Pease (1990), conducted a focus group discussion and contribute d to the same by offering more explanations. They say that given that the boy ordinary lives become boring, the excitement of criminal acts such as burglary becomes a welcome relief, which bring in a sense of autonomy denying any form of social controls, which are, imposed by the broad culture (Anderson, 1998). For the lower class group, another institution generally plays a crucial role the identical sex peer group is more pertinent to the individual than the family, school or work because it offers precisely a sense of belonging, and a route to achieve status, which they cannot achieve easily in mainstream society (Boggs, 1965). Therefore, the individuals can easily engage in gangs as burglar gangs to achieve some sense of identity. Thus, delinquency is actually not a reaction against established middle class values but generally as a means of living up to their expectations culturally for sma rtness and toughness (Buerger, 1992). On the other hand, David Matza (1964) is another excellent scholar who used a case study on juvenile delinquency and its perpetrators arguing that, rather than committing to delinquency, people drift between unconventional and conventional behavior. The initial socialization introduces an understanding of expectations and a feeling of guilt if the expectations are not met, but that people develop techniques of neutralization, therefore, avoiding the guilt feeling (Hannah, 1992). To some extent, society helps to neutralize the guilt through passing blame to the parents for failing to supervise their children properly. Matza also argued that the rummage around for excitement is particularly classless. It is simply that the youth in the working class have fewer opportunities for precisely legitimate activities (Boggs, 1965). To him, therefore, burglary practice is prominent among societies because the youth are idle and nothing to do for leisure therefore turning to crime (Buerger, 1992 ). In other words, deviancy of such kind is fun for them, and they love being in such groups. There is a specific excitement in free will practice and breaking rules knowing well that there is little or no chance of being caught (Anderson, 1998). Therefore, the youth in the burglary practice care lees of what happens next after they engage in such crimes. This implies a level of rational choice within particular structural constraints (Gabor, 1990). The burglars are individuals who generally feel powerless and want something to compensate for that meaning that they devote in doing such crimes. The same people are tired of being, pushed around simply feeling like defying the general system (White, 1990). Burglars in this context care less of the group they join just to facilitate their enjoyment. Additionally, Stanley Cohen (1972) did a study on the youth of London in the 1970s. His examination entailed the immediate context of determining how two different subcultures reacted to the respective changes, which occur in their community (Anderson, 1998). His suggestions were that the Mod reaction for the individuals was to the ideology of affluence. They wanted to illustrate that they had money and knew the way to spend it (Clarke, 1998). In contrast, skinheads generally looked back to the traditional working community. Each generation generally tries to find employment or relatively adapts to unemployment. However, the 1920s had different economic circumstances. Cohen reflected that youth in such situations develop a cultural style as a means to cope with their exacting circumstances and to resist the dominant societal values (Buerger, 1992). This casts the youth working class as the standard-bearers of the relative class struggle. After learning, this it is important to note that there is little that youth can do to change society in real terms, but continued resistance offers subjective satisfaction that is evident through style: haircuts, music, the clothes, and language of the distinctive youth cultures. Cohen argued that generally, these styles have a meaning. This is an application of Sub cultural Theory by Marx, which synthesized the structuralism with the Labeling Theory (Boggs, 1965). The approach places significant emphasis on the youth culture contents and on the differences from the class background. The assumption in this case is that a capitalist society tries to achieve hegemony through using the societal cultural values for their benefit. In the application, the sub cultural theory espouses that the burglary practice is different from one cultural group to the other. The social development features in each group distinctively and is, shared among the members. Conversely, Frederic (1927: 46) studied criminal gangs in a systematic way, with an analysis of gang activity as well as behavior using a case study. He made a definition of gangs by the process that they go through in forming a group: The criminal gang is an interstitial cultural group formed spontaneously originally, and then holds together through conflict. It has characteristics such as meeting face to face, conflict, milling, and planning (Boggs, 1965). The result of this behavior is collectively the development of tradition, esprit de corps, unreflective internal structure, solidarity, group awareness, morale, and local territory attachment. He maintained that criminal gangs naturally originate during the early adolescent years from unprompted playgroups that get into various forms of mischief. They become criminal gangs when they stimulate opposition and disapproval, therefore, acquiring a more explicit group-consciousness (Duffala, 1996). Like Merton and Durkheim, Thrasher de scribed the way the environment can be favorable to delinquent behavior, that criminal gang subcultures arose in the relative cracks, or interstices, of neglect combined with the cracks of identity occurring in the turbulent adolescence years (Carroll Weaver, 1996). Additionally, in application to the context, burglary groups form spontaneously and start early in the adolescence years. Shaw (1930) in a study on criminal gangs in Chicago described criminal delinquency as activity that transmitted from generally older to younger youth with the jails and streets of Chicago as their classrooms (Buerger, 1992). Thrasher did confirm the work of Shaw with most gangs in the transition zone with the chief incidence of unemployment, single-parent families, multiple family dwellings, low levels of education and welfare cases. These were the ghetto, the slums, and the barrios and his evidence of an approximated 1,313 gangs with an approximated 25,000 members found a distinct way of acquiring an identity. The gangs became a youths group of reference where main values, and goals were formed offering a sense of self-esteem. Under this context, the burglars form groups just to appreciate identity and develop some form of the contentions (Buerger, 1992). Conclusion Burglary can be explained using two theories of social ecology including Crime, place, Strain, and sub cultural theories. The two theories are significant in explaining Burglary as a crime but espouse the ideas differently. The theories critically compare and contrast in their explanation of burglary as a local crime. The common argument in these theories is that burglary practices are dependent of the area of operation, the individual as well as the routine activity, rational choice and crime pattern. The main difference is the reason why such crimes persist in different conditions. It is worth acknowledging that theories of burglary crime are mutually supportive in different respects, they give rise to divergent explanations of crime at particular locations. Given the prevalent high-crime locations, a crime theorist focus on how burglars gain and discover access to the place. The burglary explanations focus on the behaviors of the targets as well as the absence of controllers inclu ding place managers, guardians, and handlers. Generally, crime and place explains Burglary in the context of the location of the crime itself while sub cultural theory explains burglary crime differently, arguing that certain subcultures or groups in the society have attitudes and values that are conducive to burglary crime, as well as violence.

cold sassy tree :: essays research papers

Rising Action: 1. Grandpa finds a wife who will live with him for his final days. Mary Lou seems to not like Mrs. Love Simpson living with her father but keeps quite about her disliking. 2. After the wedding, Mrs. Love Simpson has an unexpected visitor carrying an expensive saddle covered in gold and silver pieces. He finds Mrs. Love Simpson and with out saying a word, proceeds to kiss her in a passionate way. A grandpa walk in the door to find them standing in the room with lips interlocked, but doesn’t seem to get mad. He introduces himself like he would any other person. Later they find out he was one of Mrs. Love Simpson’s old boyfriends. 3. When the newly weds come home from a short trip from Atlanta, they are seen riding in a brand new Cadillac. They are now the proud new owners of the first car in Cold Sassy. Then soon decide to turn part of the store into a car dealership to sell more cars to the wealthy people of the town. 4. William is now closer to Grandpa then ever before, but he can’t help but seem like Grandpa is doing something wrong by marrying Mrs. Love Simpson. Along with the rest of the family and town. Climax: 5. It seems that the family has more problems then the rest of the town can ever imagine. Thorton is soon found dead in his own kitchen. William finds a suicide letter to Mary Lou in the bedroom next to the bed. He reads the letter and sees that Thorton did indeed commit suicide, but for reasons that he guesses he cant even find the words for it it’s so awful. The family is devastated but goes on with life. Falling Action: 6. Mrs. Love Simpson can’t help but feel to blame for this unfortunate turn of events and asks Grandpa for a divorce so she can leave and get away from the watchful eye of the town.

Dworkins Wishful-Thinkers Constitution Essay -- Argumentative Persuas

Dworkin's Wishful-Thinkers Constitution ABSTRACT: Developing ideas first put forth in my Abortion Rights as Religious Freedom, I argue against Ronald Dworkin's liberal view of constitutional interpretation while rejecting the originalism of Justices Scalia and Bork. I champion the view that Justice Black presents in his dissent in Griswold v. Connecticut. INTRODUCTION In Life's Dominion Ronald Dworkin uses a liberal interpretation of the Constitution to defend constitutional rights to abortion and euthanasia. (1) According to Dworkin, the Constitution "lays down general, comprehensive moral standards that government must respect but ... leaves it to ... judges to decide what these standards mean in concrete circumstances" (p. 119). Any right can become constitutionally protected if five Supreme Court justices declare it so. As with Peter Pan, so with rights protected by the Constitution, believing makes it so. In this paper I explain and reject Dworkin's arguments for his view of constitutional interpretation. But with Dworkin, I reject the "originalism" of Justice Scalia and Robert Bork. I champion, instead, the moderate view that Justice Hugo Black presents in his dissent in Griswold v. Connecticut. (2) DWORKIN'S ARGUMENTS Dworkin notes that the Constitution's language, especially in several clauses of the Bill of Rights, is very abstract. The First Amendment says that Congress shall not infringe freedom of speech, shall not restrict freedom of religion, and shall not establish any religion. But it says nothing to help judges decide whether specific laws against pornography or flag burning offend freedom of speech [or] whether laws that ... forbid Native Americans to ingest peyote ... invade freedom of re... ...381 U.S. 479 (1965). (3) Lochner v. New York 198 U.S. 45 (1905). (4) Pierce v. Society of Sisters 268 U.S. 510 (1925). (5) Griswold v. Connecticut 381 U.S. 479, Harlan's concurring opinion at 500. (6) Casey v. Planned Parenthood 60 LW 4795 (June 30, 1992). (7) Griswold, at 522. (notes omitted) (8) Griswold, at 513. (9) Griswold, footnote 6 at 514. (10) Griswold, at 519. (11) Adamson v. California, 332 U.S. 46, 90-92 (1947)(Black dissenting). The inserted quote is from Federal Power Commission v Pipeline Co., 315 U. S. 575, 599, 601, n. 4. The entire passage is quoted in Griswold, at 525. (12) Peter S. Wenz, Abortion Rights as Religious Freedom (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992). (13) See Wenz, pp. 163-167. (14) Calder v. Bull, 3 Dal. 386, 399; quoted in Griswold, at 525. (15) Griswold, at 519. (16) Griswold, at 501.

Burial Practices Throughout the Ages

Society has always looked for a way to honor its dead. This has been the case since the earliest of times. There are rituals in all populations that mark the various passages each travel through in life. For instance, we mark an individual’s accomplishments in graduating from college, or getting married. It is no different in death. Death is the final passage that civilizations throughout history have found ways to honor. Burials and the ceremonies that commemorate them, offer the survivors an opportunity to pay homage to the life that has been lost.It gives them a chance to celebrate the deceased for accomplishments, life and family. The burial ceremony allows the survivors a chance to mourn, and express their grief to others. The ceremony helps those left behind to heal from the pain of the loss. From the early civilizations to the present, burial rituals have told us a great deal about the social behavior of the population. In most cases, children and elderly were buried ju st the same as the younger, stronger male. That tells us that the population valued its people and grieved their loss.In the middle and late Iron Age, burial practices reflected a diverse community. In the area that is now Britain, an individual was buried in two separate areas. For instance, there are areas where single bones are buried, as well as locations where the rest of the body is found. During the Iron Age, the breaking down of the human body indicated ritual activities. This was done at death or shortly after with the use of excarnation. Excarnation is allowing the body to be exposed until it reaches the skeleton stage. At that point, the cranium is usually first to separate from the body, followed by the feet and hands.This process will usually involve the chopping of skin, or soft tissue (Redfern, 2008). Once body parts are separated, the secondary burial can be completed. The body processing also included breaking bones to remove joint cartilage. Archeologists have noti ced that the bones found in secondary sites usually have cut marks, and fractures (Redfern, 2008). The Neanderthal was different in its method of dealing with the dead. In fact, the Neanderthal buried its dead in a painstaking ritual that occurred in stages with the consumption of the deceased person’s body parts.Nevertheless, the Neanderthal left gifts on the graves of those who died. Statistics indicate that 40 percent of the graves that archeologists have examined have been of the very old or very young. That fact indicates that the civilization valued both its elderly and children (Friedermann, Muller, Hemm, 2008). The burial practices of the pre-pottery Neolithic civilization found individuals buried in shallow graves. Some graves contained only one person while others contained many. Archeologists discovered 21 artifacts related to 15 graves in Atlit-Yam, on the Northern coast of Israel.Most of the items were tools, axes, and other household items. The graves at this si te were simple. There were a few secondary burial sites, as some skulls were detached from the body. The burial site was covered with lime plaster on its surface (Galili, Eshed, Goher, Hershkovitz, 2005). In the third millennium burial practices in the Oman peninsula feature tombs circular in shape with un-worked stone that had a single ring around it. The tomb had between two and ten chambers within it. One tomb at the site of Unar 1 was large enough to hold the bodies of 438 people.A smaller tomb found at Unn an-Nar Island only held between 34-48 individuals. Inside of the tombs, archeologists found ceramics, soft-stone objects, bronze, beads and shells. These items and burial method indicates a collective manner of living. There were some cremations discovered in this period as well (Blau, 2001). A burial cave found in the Aleutian Islands dated back to 390 BD. gives a glimpse into the function of the society. Inside the cave were found hearths and work places. Human bones had ar ranged stones around them. There was an additional stone arrangement at the back of the cave.In front of the cave, in the habitation area, animal bones and artifacts were found. The bodies were in a sarcophagus in wood or stone coffins. There is some discussion among scholars that cave burials may have been just for the better off (West, Lefevre, Corbett, Crockford, 2003). Burial rites in Sophocles’ Athens featured the use of tombs more than cemeteries. The tombs are found along roads or at passageways or gates. Antigone believed that all people are entitled to burial. The words tumbos and herion mean mounds of the land that cover the deceased and mark where the individual is buried. The word, taphos means the tomb.The grave or tomb generally was located in a public location. The idea that the dead should be separated in some way from those living is not a part of the Greek culture. However, late 5th century walls have been found that divide up tombs from one family to anothe r. Monuments always face the street or public square. The Romans of the same era prohibited the burial of any individual within the city. (Patterson, 2006). Murders in this era were executed for their crime. After execution, they were stoned and thrown out of the city without being buried. Suicide victims were buried but not provided a headstone.People of good standing were given ceremonies that featured songs. Then they were placed in a decorated tomb (Patterson, 2006). Heroes and those killed in battle were given a public funeral with games, oration, and sacrifices. Solon devised the rules for burial in Athens. He said the deceased should be laid out within his home. The next day, he would be carried out of the house on the board he was laying on. When they carry the dead out, men will walk in the front of the procession. Women walk behind. In addition, no woman under age 60 could enter the chamber of the dead, or the tomb.(Patterson, 2006). This is quite different from the days o f Jesus where women were in charge of caring for the dead. In Medieval times there is a diverse burial rite found in the use of boats with regional and temporal variations found. The Sutton Hoo Mound is a large ship-type grave. Most of the boats used were dugout logboats. Some of the civilizations used boat timbers or boat parts to cover the grave area (Brooks, 2007). Scandinavia is well-known for its adoption of burial by boat. The Swedes and Norwegians practiced boat cremations; however, such is rare in Anglo-Saxon areas.The exception to this is the site at Sutton Hoo Mount three. At that site there is a tree-trunk made like a coffin that was used for cremation (Brooks, 2007). By the time the 18th century came around, most people in England were buried in unmarked graves in a churchyard. The ground was consecrated and the service was performed by an Anglican clergyman. He used the book, â€Å"Book of Common Prayers† for the service. In 1689, however, the idea of personalize d funerals and pre-planned ceremonies came into being. The more affluent bought coffins. This lead to the development of the undertaker profession (Gitting, 2007).The very affluent built themselves a mausoleum on their land. The most famous ceremony was for John Knill, the mayor of St. Ives. He established a trust and asked that a ceremony be performed every five years. The ritual featured ten girls, who were under the age of ten. It also featured two widows, the vicar, and mayor and customs officer. All paraded to the mausoleum on top of a hill. The ceremony featured dancing, and singing, â€Å"Old Hundredth, â€Å"All people that on earth do dwell† (Gitting, 2007). Ironically, the ceremony was last completed in 2006. After the American Civil War, the ideal of embalming became popular.Prior to this Americans relied on the European methods establish for the preservation of the body. The use of embalming gave family a chance to look at the person one last time and accept his or her death. Embalming was used after Lincoln’s death to allow him to lie in state for individuals to witness, (Funeral Industry, n. d. ) In conclusion, burial rites of differing civilizations tell us a story of how the people lived, as well as how they died. It explains their values, and speaks to the kind of society they lived within. For example, south of Cairo a 5,000 year old tomb was discovered.Inside of the tomb archeologists found the bones of 10 donkeys. (Burial Site, 2008). This indicates the value this civilization placed on the role of the animals. Therefore, burial rites explain much about ancient civilizations, but also tell us a great deal about ourselves. Although the rituals may have changed, the overall purpose is the same and that is to honor the dead. References Blau, S. (2001). Fragmentary endings: a discussion of 3rd-millennium BC burial practices in the Oman Peninsula. Antiquity, 75, (289), 557 Brooks, S. (2007). Boat-nvets in graves in pre-Viking Kent : Reassessing Anglo-Saxon boat burial traditions.Medieval Archeology, 51, (1), 1-18 Burial site a high honour for a lowly beast. (2008). In Mac lean’s, 121, (16), 55 Friedermann, S. , Muller, S. , Hemm, C. (2008). The Neanderthals. New York, NY: Routledge Publishing Company Funeral Industry. (n. d. ) In Encyclopedia of Death and Dying. Retrieved April 30, 2010, from, http://wwwdeathreference,con/En-Gh/funeral-industry. htm Galili, E. , Eshed, V. , Gopher, A. , Hershkovitz, A. (2005). Burial practices of the submerged pre-pottery Neolithic C site of Atlit-Yam, Northern Coast of Israel. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 339, 1-19Gitting, C. (2007). Eccentric or Enlightened? Unusual burial and commemoration in England, 1689-1823. Mortality, 12, (4), 321-349 Patterson, C. (2006). The place and practice in burial in Sophocles’ Athens. Helios, 33, 9-48 Redfern, R. (2008). New evidence for Iron Age secondary burial practice and bone modification from Guss age, All Saints and Maiden Castle (Dorset, England). Oxford Journal of Archeology, 27, (3), 281-301 West, D. , Leferve, C. , Corbett, D. , Crockford, S. (2003). A burial cave in the western Aleutian Islands, Alaska. Artic Anthropology, 40, (1), 70